Course Description: This course challenges students to critically examine the structures and principles of governance from an institutional perspective, emphasizing democratic values, human rights, and social justice.

Elective: Academic
Prerequisite: None
Time Allotment: 80 hours for one semester, 4 hours per week
Schedule: First Semester/Second Semester

QUARTER 1: PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

CONTENT STANDARDS: The learners demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the concept and principles of politics and governance, including the role of political ideologies, the concepts of state and nation, and the significance of the 1987 Constitution in shaping democratic governance, human rights, and the rule of law in the Philippines and the global context

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: The learners critically analyze real-world political and governance issues by applying key concepts such as power, ideology, the state, and constitutional principles through researchbased presentations, debates, or advocacy campaigns that reflect democratic values, human rights, and social justice.

QUARTER 2: THE STRUCTURE OF PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT

CONTENT STANDARDS: The learners demonstrate an understanding of the roles, functions, and powers of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches as well as the local government units (LGUs), the principles
of separation of powers and checks and balances, decentralization, and the importance of
public accountability as a cornerstone of democratic governance.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS: The learners evaluate current issues and propose informed solutions (or public policies) that promote democratic values, good governance, and national development

References: https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Philippine-Governance-Philippine-Politics-and-Governance-1.pdf

Philippine Politics and Governance
Quarter 1 – Module 1: The Concepts of Politics and Governance

What I Need to Know?

This module introduces to you the basic concepts and vital elements of politics, government and governance. Specifically, it will help you understand the diverse meanings of politics and the different ways of viewing it. The part about government and governance will make it clear to you the differences between the two concepts and explain their interconnectedness. At the end of the module, you will be able to relate the concepts that you have learned with your everyday life by identifying a specific political phenomenon and how it can be studied.

The module is divided into two lessons, namely:

• Lesson 1 – The Meaning of Politics and How it can be Studied
• Lesson 2 – Government and Governance
  
• After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain the definition of politics;
2. differentiate the various views on politics;
3. recognize the value of politics; and
4. differentiate governance from government.

What I Know

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the following items carefully. Write the letter of the correct
answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It refers to the exercise of control within society through the making
   and enforcement of collective decisions.
   a. Civil Society
   b. Governance
   c. Government
   d. Politics
2. Indicator of good governance wherein the most vulnerable ones are
   taken into consideration.
   a. Accountability
   b. Equity and inclusiveness
   c. Participatory
   d. Transparency
3. How did Aristotle view politics?
   a. Politics as compromise is preferable to violence
   b. Politics is closely associated with the activities of politicians.
   c. Politics does not infringe upon ‘personal’ affairs and institutions.
   d. Politics allows human beings to have an attempt in improving their
   lives and create the Good Society.
4. What view about politics stresses the statement: Conflict resolution is
   at the heart of politics?
   a. Politics as power
   b. Politics as public affairs
   c. Politics as art of government
   d. Politics as compromise and consensus
5. If you are studying politics, you are studying the government. Two
   aspects are under this setting: one is on the personnel of the
   government, while the other aspect is on what?
   a. Civil Society
   b. Government policies
   c. Machinery of government
   d. Officials of government
6. What do you call the formal institutions through which a group of
   people is ruled or governed?
   a. Civil Society
   b. Governance
   c. Government
   d. Politics
7. According to this characteristic of good governance, every person or
   group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts
   affect public interest.
   a. Accountability
   b. Responsiveness
   c. Rule of Law
   d. Transparency
8. Which among the choices below refers to the importance of
   government?
   a. building alliances
   b. maintenance of peace and order
   c. promotion of war
   d. winning elections
9. What do you call the exercise of power or authority by political leaders
   for the well-being of their country’s citizens or inhabitants and is also
   based on the realization that the government alone cannot do
   everything for the people?
   a. Authority
   b. Basic rights
   c. Corruption
   d. Governance
10. 10.What characteristic of good governance requires that people are open
    to information regarding decision-making process and the
    implementation of decisions?
    a. Accountability
    b. Responsiveness
    c. Transparency
    d. Zeal
11. What term pertains to organizations that are private in nature but have
    public functions or objectives that affect the process of governance?
    a. Civil Society
    b. Governance
    c. Government
    d. State

12.Which view on politics states that the distinction between ‘the political’ and ‘the ‘nonpolitical’ coincides with the division between the activities of the state and civil societies?
a. Politics as power
b. Politics as public affairs
c. Politics as art of government
d. Politics as compromise and consensus
13.According to this view, to study politics is in essence to study government or the exercise of authority.
a. Politics as power
b. Politics as public affairs
c. Politics as art of government
d. Politics as compromise and consensus
14.Active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decisionmaking process is the hallmark of this indicator of good governance.
a. Accountability
b. Consensus
c. Equity and inclusiveness
d. Participatory
15.This view sees politics to be present in all social activities, the ability to achieve a desired outcome and a struggle over limited resources.
a. Politics as power
b. Politics as public affairs
c. Politics as art of government
d. Politics as compromise and consensus

LESSON 1 : The Meaning of Politics and How It Can Be Studied

Politics is exciting because people have different viewpoints. According to 🔍Heywood (2007), people may disagree about the following concerns: How people should live? Who should get what? How should power and other resources be distributed? Should society be based on cooperation or conflict? He further stressed that humans also disagree about how such matters should be resolved, how should
collective decisions be made, who should have a say and how much influence should
each person have?
Defining politics and identifying its scope of study is not easy. Although there is no agreed single meaning of politics, it is often understood as a social activity. 🔍Heywood (2007)

What is It

Here are some of the definitions of politics offered by subject matter experts:

• In broadest sense, politics is the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live. (🔍Heywood (2007))
• Activity or process through which groups reach and enforce binding decisions. (🔍Hague & 🔍Harrop 2013)
• Activity by which different interests are conciliated by giving them a share in power in proportion to their importance to the welfare and the survival of the whole community. (🔍Crick 2005)
• Set of activities that organizes individuals, systematically resolves disputes, and maintains order in society through creation and enforcement of rules and government policy. (🔍Barrington et al. 2010)
• Activity through which human beings attempt to improve their lives and create the Good Society. (🔍Aristotle in Heywood 2007)

Studying Politics – The Different Views about Politics
This topic on the different views about politics from the work of 🔍Heywood (2007) will help you gain a deeper understanding about politics

A. Politics as the art of government
Politics is viewed as an art or practical application of knowledge for attaining a particular objective. Considered as the classical definition of politics: the art of government or exercise of control in society through making and enforcement of collective or group decisions.

Here are the additional features of this view about politics:
➢ This view was developed in Ancient Greece. Remember, the word politics is derived from the ancient Greek word polis, meaning city-state. Politics can be studied by referring it to the affairs or concerns of the polis or its modern meaning what concerns the state.

➢ If you are studying politics, you are studying the government. Two aspects are under this setting: Government personnel or the people in government and government machinery or the different government departments, offices, or agencies.
➢ Politics happens in cabinet official meetings, legislative chambers, and government departments.
➢ To study politics is to study the exercise of authority defined as legitimate power. Legitimate means it is acceptable for the people.
➢ Politics is engaged in by a limited and specific group, notably politicians, civil servants and lobbyists.

B. Politics as public affairs
This second view looks at politics as what happens in the public sphere of life. It is important that you remember the distinction between ‘the political’ and ‘the nonpolitical’. It coincides with the division between what is public and what is private. If it happens in the public sphere, it is political.

To clarify, the distinction between public and private conforms to the division between the state and civil society. The institutions of the state (the government offices, departments and agencies) can be regarded as ‘public’ because they are responsible for the collective organization of community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public’s expense through taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of institutions such as private businesses, trade unions, clubs, community groups and so on that are ‘private’ in the sense that they are set up and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their own interests, rather than those of the larger society.

C. Politics as compromise and consensus
The third view about politics focuses on the way how decisions are made. Politics is seen as a particular means of resolving conflict: that is, by compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than through the use of force and naked power.
Describing a solution to a problem as a ‘political’ solution implies peaceful debate and arbitration, as opposed to what is often called a ‘military’ solution. This is anchored on the perspective that society is characterized by consensus and not by irreconcilable conflict. Disagreements that exist can be resolved without resort to intimidation and violence. This view of politics has a positive character. Members of
society should be encouraged to respect politics as an activity, and they should be prepared to engage in the political life of their own community.

D. Politics as power
The fourth view sees politics as something that is present in all social activities, at every level of social interaction; it can be found within our families and amongst our small groups of friends just as much as amongst nations and on the international or global stage.

What makes a specific social activity or behavior political is the presence of power. Politics under this view is in essence the power or ability to achieve a desired end, through any way possible. Politics is viewed as a struggle over limited resources, and power can be seen as the means through which this struggle is conducted. In politics, power is usually thought of as a relationship: that is, as the ability to influence the behavior of others. It is referred to in terms of having ‘power over’ people. Remember, politics may be
defined as: the art of government, public affairs, compromise and consensus, and power.

What’s More

ACTIVITY 1
Complete the concept map below. Write descriptions or related concepts around the main concept politics. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper

Politics___________________________

Politics___________________________

Politics___________________________

Politics___________________________

Using the concept map that you accomplished, explain the meaning of politics.

ACTIVITY 2
On the second column, write the view about politics that corresponds with each given
statement on the first column. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Cite a recent political phenomenon or event and select the view about politics thatcan be used in studying it. Explain how that view can help you understand the citedpolitical event.

What I Have Learned

Answer the following questions. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. What are the similarities among the given definitions of
   politics?

2. Why is it important to know the different meanings of politics?

3. What is the importance of politics in our society? Explain your answer.

What I Can Do

Make a campaign statement or slogan that promotes the importance or value of politics in society. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Lesson 2 Government and Governance

What’s In
You learned in Lesson 1 the various meanings and different views about politics. Remember that politics is a social activity and it can be studied using different perspectives

What’s New
This lesson will introduce to you the two important concepts of government and governance as well as the connections and differences between them.

What is It
The Government and its Purposes
According to 🔍Mendoza (1999), government is the term generally used in referring the formal institutions through which a group of people is ruled or governed and the term extends to include the people and organizations that make, enforce, and apply political decisions for a society.

Government as explained by 🔍De Leon (1991) is created for the benefit of the people governed and it accomplishes services or functions that are beyond the capabilities of any individual or enterprise. He enumerated the important purposes of government which are:

• (1) the maintenance of peace and order;
• (2) the protection of persons and property;
• (3) the administration of justice;
• (4) the promotion of education;
• (5) the preservation of the state from external danger and;
• (6) the advancement of the physical, economic and social and cultural well-being of the people.

Governance
Governance according to 🔍Tamayo (2014) is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for attainment of the well-being of their country’s citizens or inhabitants. He added that it is a complex process in which some sectors of society exercise power and create public policies that directly affect the members of society.
🔍Anne Mette Kjaer (2004) as cited by 🔍Tamayo (2014) clarifies the following features about governance:

• Governance is broader than government because other sectors are included in it: the government
  (also called the public sector) is always the main actor in governance but it is not the only actor.
• Governance is based on the reality that the government cannot do everything for the people on its own.
• The main role of the government is to set an enabling environment for other actors of governance to participate and respond to the pursuit of the common good.
• All actors other than the government are called the “civil society.”
• The civil society includes non-governmental organizations, and other community-based and sectoral organizations that are private in nature but have public functions or objectives

Indicators of Good Governance
Good governance according to 🔍Kio Sheng (2010) and 🔍Tamayo (2014) is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics:

• (1) Participatory;
• (2) Rule of Law;
• (3) Effective and Efficient;
• (4) Transparent;
• (5) Responsive;
• (6) Equitable and Inclusive;
• (7) Consensus Oriented; and
• (8) Accountability.

1. Participatory
   Good governance necessarily requires participation of the different sectors of society. Participation means active involvement of all concerned and interested sectors in the decision-making process. It requires an enabling environment. Governance should no longer be government monopoly but government management or inter-sectoral participation.
2. Rule of Law
   Good governance is fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law requires that the people give habitual obedience to the law. The government acts within the limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. Under this indicator, laws should be responsive to the needs of the society.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency
   Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors deliver and meet the needs of society in a way that available resources are used well. Service delivery in public sector, especially of front-line agencies, must promptly and adequately serve the needs of the citizens instituting simplified government procedures and inexpensive transaction costs.
4. Transparency
   Transparency means that people can access information regarding decisionmaking process and the implementation of decisions. Information on matters of public concern are made available to the citizens or those who will be directly affected.
5. Responsiveness
   Responsiveness means that institutions and processes should serve all the stakeholders in timely and appropriate way. Interests of all citizens must be well protected in a prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of governance.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness
   Equity and inclusiveness mean that all members of society, especially the most vulnerable ones must be taken into consideration. Everyone has a stake in society; no one should feel alienated from it. Those who have less in life should have more in law. Good governance demands that the actors must give preferential treatment to the conditions of the poor.
7. Consensus Oriented
   Governance is consensus oriented when decisions are made after taking into consideration the different perspectives. A procedure for conflict resolution must be in place because it is possible that conflict will arise from competing interests of the actors. Governance is based on the partnership of the actors of the society in providing public services.
8. Accountability
   Accountability refers to answerability or responsibility for one’s action, based on the principle that each person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their acts affect public interest. Actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the consequences of decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the society it serves.

What’s More

ACTIVITY 1
On the box provided below, choose three important purposes of government, draw 1 symbol connected with each purpose and provide a brief explanation. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

ACTIVITY 2
Look for three words/concepts that are related with good governance in the search box below then explain each word based on your understanding. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

R D R S R E S P O N S I V E N E S S T U B W X Z
T R A N S P A R E N C Y R S T N M S Y O P S J K
E R G H T I B I T Y A C C O U N T A B I L I T Y
A R T I P A T E P A R T I C I P A T O R Y R Y U
N M O E F F E C T I V E H J A S D F T I V E J K
A R C Y E F F I C I E N C Y Y C O N S E N S U S
N E S S I V I N C L U S I V E N E S S A A G H S

1. __________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Answer the following questions. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Choose one purpose of the government and explain its significance.

2. How is government related with governance?

3. What is the importance of good governance in the lives of the people?

What I Can Do

Complete the table below. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

First column: Write your most important learning about good governance
Second column: Cite a political phenomenon related to your most important learning.
Third column: How can you apply your most important learning in analyzing the political phenomenon in second column?

Assessment
MATCHING TYPE. Match the descriptions in Column A with the correct concepts in Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

A

1. Activity through which people make, preserve and amend the rules under which they live.
2. Good governance: every person or group are responsible for their actions affecting public interest.
3. Conflict resolution is at the heart of politics
4. Legitimate power
5. Formal institutions through which a group of people is ruled or governed.
6. Politics allows human beings to have an attempt in improving their lives and create the Good Society.
7. Importance of government
8. Good governance: people are open to information on decision-making and implementation
9. Organizations that are private in nature but affect the process of governance
10. Good governance gives preferential attention to the conditions of the poor.
11. Exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions.
12. Indicator of good governance pertaining to active involvement of all affected parties
13. This view sees politics to as present in all social activities
14. To study politics is to study government
15. Exercise of authority by political leaders based on the realization that government alone cannot do everything for the people.

B.

a. Governance

b. Government

c. Participatory

d. Transparency

e. Politics as compromise and consensus

f. Equity and inclusiveness

g. Accountability

h. maintenance of peace and order

i. Politics as power

j. Authority

k. Rule of Law

l. Politics as art of government

m. Politics

n. Aristotle’s view on politics

o. Civil Societies

Additional Activities

Complete the table below. Cite two civil society groups that are helping the government in governance. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

References
Corpuz, Ronald M. 2015. Politics and Governance With 1987 Philippine Constitution.
De Leon, Hector. 1991. Textbook on the Philippine Constitution.
Heywood, Andrew. 2007. Politics. 3rd Edition.
Kjaer, Anne Mette. 2004. “Governance” . Cabridge: Polity Press.
Mendoza, Diana J. 1999. “Basic Concepts, Structures, and Functions of Government”
Politics and Governance: Theory and Practice in the Philippine Context.
Sheng, Yap Kioe. 2010. What is Good Governance? Accessed July 12, 2020.
https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/good-governance.pdf.
n.d. What is Governance? Accessed July 13, 2020.
https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/

Philippine Politics and Governance
Quarter 1 – Module 2:
Political Ideologies

What I Need to Know
The scope of this module will help you understand the meaning of ideology and political ideologies. The basic tenets or doctrines of different political ideologies will be presented on this lesson. The functions of
political ideologies will be enumerated and explained. The political ideologies will be compared to the different perspectives on the state. At the end of the module, you will be able to relate the concepts that you have learned with your everyday life by recognizing how political ideologies bring about social change and impact on the social and political life of Filipinos.
The module has one lesson, namely:

• Lesson 1 – Political Ideologies
  After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the basic tenets of major political ideologies (i.e., liberalism, conservatism, socialism);
2. differentiate the political ; and
3. analyze how political ideologies impact on the social and political life of Filipino.

What I Know
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the following items carefully. Write the letter of the correct
answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. It refers to a system of belief about how society should function, behave,
   and operate.
   a. Ideology
   b. Philosophy
   c. Psychology
   d. Theology
2. Which of the following is NOT a function of political ideology?
   a. It creates laws in order to achieve a perfect society.
   b. It offers an account of existing order by examining what works and what
   does not work.
   c. It outlines how political change or the desired social order can be
   achieved.
   d. It provides a model of a desired social order, a vision of Good Society
3. It is the set of political beliefs emphasizing individual rights and liberties.
   a. Conservatism
   b. Liberalism
   c. Socialism
   d. None of the above
4. What set of political beliefs emphasizes preservation of customs and
   traditions that define the character of a society?
   a. Conservatism
   b. Liberalism
   c. Socialism
   d. None of the above
5. Which of the following describes a set of political beliefs emphasizing
   community and social equality?
   a. Conservatism
   b. Liberalism
   c. Socialism
   d. None of the above
6. Which of the following is NOT a key idea of Liberalism?
   a. Fraternity
   b. Freedom
   c. Individualism
   d. Reason

It is the core principle of Liberalism.
a. Fraternity
b. Freedom
c. Individualism
d. Reason

8. What key idea of Liberalism is being described in the statement below?
   It is a desire to ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or
   chooses.
   a. Fraternity
   b. Freedom
   c. Individualism
   d. Reason
9. Which is true about the key ideas of Conservatism?
   a. Authority, Consent, Human imperfection, Pragmatism, Tradition
   b. Authority, Equality ,Human imperfection, Pragmatism, Tradition
   c. Authority, Human imperfection, Pragmatism , Property, Tradition
   d. Consent, Human imperfection, Pragmatism, Tradition, Toleration
   10.What belief states that action should be shaped by practical circumstances
   and practical goals, or simply by “what works”?
   a. Authority
   b. Freedom
   c. Individualism
   d. Pragmatism
   11.The key idea of Socialism that emphasizes on nurture over nature.
   a. Community
   b. Fraternity
   c. Social Class
   d. Social Equality
   12.The key idea of Conservatism that reflects the accumulated wisdom of the
   past, institutions and practices that have been ‘tested by time’, and
   advocates that it should be preserved.
   a. Laws
   b. Norms
   c. Religion
   d. Tradition
   13.Which is NOT a key idea of liberalism on reason?
   a. Belief in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve their
   differences through debate and argument
   b. Belief in the supreme importance of the human
   c. Faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments
   d. Individuals as the best judges of their own interests

14.It is the central value of Socialism.
a. Fraternity
b. Freedom
c. Individualism
d. Social Equality

15. A political ideology that prefers cooperation over competition and favors
    collectivism over individualism.
    a. Communism
    b. Conservatism
    c. Liberalism
    d. Socialism

Lesson 1 Political Ideologies

Note for disambiguation: List of political ideologies

What’s New
What idea or concept is being depicted by this picture? In 3-4 sentences give your
insights about it. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Ang aming mga Tinig

What is It

Meaning of Ideology
Ideology according to 🔍Heywood (2007) refers to a system of beliefs about how society should function, behave, and operate. He further explains that from a social-scientific viewpoint, an ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power relationships.

Functions of Political Ideology
Political ideologies are very important in a society. 🔍Heywood (2007) also described the following functions of political ideology:
(1) It offers an account of the existing order by examining what works and what does not work, as well as other various issues and problems that the state and the broader society are confronted with.
(2) It provides a model of a desired social order, a vision of the Good Society.
(3) It outlines how political change or the desired social order can be achieved.

Major Political Ideologies
There are many political ideologies. On this module we will concentrate more on these three major political ideologies. These are the Liberalism, Conservatism, and Socialism. Heywood (2007) explained the key ideas under these ideologies. Read his explanations below:

Liberalism
Liberalism pertains to set of political beliefs
emphasizing individual rights and liberties. Its key
ideas are the following:
Key Ideas of Liberalism

1. Individualism: It is the core principle of liberal ideology. Individualism is further
   explained as:

❖ belief in the supreme importance of the human
❖ human beings are seen with equal moral worth; they possess separate and unique identities
❖ the liberal goal is to construct a society within which individuals can flourish and develop.

2. Freedom: Individual freedom or liberty is the core value of liberalism.
   Under freedom are the following features:
   ❖ desire to ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or
   chooses
   ❖ advocate ‘freedom under the law’, as they recognize that one person’s
   liberty may be a threat to the liberty of others
3. Reason: Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure, and that
   this can be uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical
   enquiry. Furthermore, the key idea of reason favors the following:
   ❖ faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments;
   ❖ individuals as the best judges of their own interests;
   ❖ belief in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve their
   differences through debate and argument, rather than bloodshed and
   war.
4. Equality: This refers to the belief that individuals
   are ‘born equal’, at least in terms of moral worth.
   Liberalism has strong commitment to equal rights
   namely:
   ❖ legal equality (‘equality before the law’);
   ❖ political equality (‘one person, one vote; one vote,
   one value’).
5. Toleration: It means willingness to allow others to think, speak and act in
   ways which they disapprove. This promotes debate and intellectual
   progress.
6. Consent: It will advocate that authority and social relationships should
   always be based on consent or willing agreement. Under this idea, the
   government must therefore be based on the ‘consent of the governed’.
   Authority is always grounded in legitimacy.

Conservatism

Conservatism refers to set of political beliefs based on preservation of customs and traditions
that define the character of a society. Here are the key ideas of conservatism:
Key Ideas of Conservatism

1. Tradition: It is the central theme of conservative thought or ‘the desire to conserve’. It respects established customs and institutions that have endured through time. Tradition reflects the accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have been ‘tested by time’, and it should be preserved for the benefit of the living and for generations yet to come.
2. Pragmatism: It is the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstances and practical goals, that is, by ‘what works’.
3. Human imperfection: In this view, human beings are limited, dependent, and security-seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested. Human beings are needing to live in stable and orderly communities. The maintenance of order requires a strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties.
4. Authority: Conservatives hold that, to some degree, authority is always exercised ‘from above’, providing leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education to act wisely intheir own interests. Authority and leadership are seen as resulting from experience and training.
5. Property: Conservatives see property ownership as being vital because it
   gives people security and a measure of independence from government,
   and it encourages them to respect the law and the property of others

Socialism

Socialism is defined as set of political beliefs emphasizing community and social equality that adheres to the following ideas:
Key Ideas of Socialism

1. Community: The core of socialism is the vision of human beings as social creatures linked by the existence of a common humanity. It highlights the importance of community, and the degree
   to which individual identity is fashioned by social interaction and membership of social groups and collective bodies. Socialists are inclined to emphasize nurture over nature, and to explain individual behavior mainly in terms of social factors, rather than innate qualities.
2. Fraternity: It is sharing a common humanity. Humans are bound together by a sense of comradeship or fraternity (literally meaning ‘brotherhood’, but broadened in this context to embrace all humans). Socialism prefers cooperation over competition and favors collectivism over individualism.
   Cooperation enables people to harness their collective energies/strengthens the bonds of community.
3. Social equality is the central value of socialism: It emphasizes equality of outcome as opposed to
   equality of opportunity. The measure of social equality is looked upon as guarantee of social
   stability and cohesion.
4. Need is of primary importance in Socialism: It is the belief that material benefits should be distributed on the basis of need, rather than simply on the basis of merit or work: ‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his need’. The satisfaction of basic needs (hunger, thirst,
   shelter, health, personal security and so on) is a prerequisite for a worthwhile human existence and participation in social life.
5. Social class: Socialism has traditionally been associated with the interests of an oppressed and exploited working class – regarded the working class as an agent of social change. The socialist goal is the eradication of economic and social inequalities, or their substantial reduction.
6. Common ownership: The socialist case for common ownership is that it is a means of harnessing material resources to the common good, with private property being seen to promote selfishness, acquisitiveness and social division.

Different Ideologies and their Perspectives on the State
Socialism, Liberalism and Conservatism are political ideologies that have different perspective or view on the state. According to Mendoza and Melegrito (2016) have the following explanations:

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